US-Japan relations developed from Commodore Perry’s arrival in the 1850s into a treaty-based alliance after World War II. The relationship includes security commitments under the 1960 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, constitutional limits associated with Article 9, trade arrangements, and a nationwide consular network for people moving between the two countries.
How Commodore Perry opened US-Japan relations
Commodore Matthew C. Perry entered Edo Bay, now Tokyo Bay, with four “Black Ships” on July 8, 1853. Carrying a letter from President Millard Fillmore, he pressed Japan to open contact with the United States after a long period of restricted foreign access.
Perry returned in March 1854 with nine ships. On March 31, Japan signed the Treaty of Kanagawa, which opened Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships needing supplies or assistance after shipwrecks. It was a friendship and port-access agreement, not a general trade treaty.
The Harris Treaty moved the relationship into commerce
Townsend Harris became the first U.S. Consul General to Japan in August 1856 and worked from Gyokusenji, a Buddhist temple in Shimoda. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce, commonly called the Harris Treaty, followed on July 29, 1858.
The Harris Treaty opened additional ports to American trade, set fixed tariff rates, and allowed U.S. citizens to live in Japan. It took effect on July 4, 1859, and gave the United States the right to station diplomats in Edo and consuls in the open ports, putting commercial and resident ties on a more formal footing than the Treaty of Kanagawa.
War, surrender, and the postwar constitution
The bilateral peace that began in the 1850s ended when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, bringing the United States into the Pacific theater of World War II. Japan formally signed the Instrument of Surrender on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. General Douglas MacArthur accepted the surrender as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, alongside representatives of the United States and eight other Allied nations.
A U.S.-led Allied occupation ran from August 1945 until April 28, 1952. During that period, MacArthur oversaw sweeping political, economic, and social reforms, including a new constitution.
Japanese Constitution Article 9 remains central
Japan’s postwar constitution includes Article 9, under which the Japanese people renounce war as a sovereign right. The article also states that land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. Debates over Japan’s defense policy and its security relationship with the United States still turn on this language.
The Treaty of San Francisco was signed on September 8, 1951, and entered into force on April 28, 1952, ending the occupation and restoring Japan’s sovereignty. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, remained under U.S. administration; Okinawa returned to Japan on May 15, 1972.
What the US-Japan security treaty requires
The original U.S.-Japan Security Treaty was signed on September 8, 1951, the same day as the San Francisco Peace Treaty. It allowed U.S. forces to be stationed in and around Japan, but it did not require the United States to defend Japan if it were attacked. Critics in Japan considered it unequal.
The current Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan was signed in Washington, DC, on January 19, 1960. It entered into force on June 23, 1960, after ratification by both countries and replaced the 1951 arrangement with a more reciprocal framework.
- Article 5 provides that an armed attack against either party in territory under Japanese administration would be met by both parties acting to meet the common danger.
- Article 6 grants the United States the use of facilities and areas in Japan to contribute to the security of Japan and to international peace and security in the Far East. It is paired with a Status of Forces Agreement governing the legal status of American personnel.
- Article 10 allows either party, after the treaty’s initial ten years, to end it with one year’s notice. Neither country has invoked that provision.
An exchange of notes accompanying the 1960 treaty requires prior consultation with Japan before major changes in the deployment of U.S. forces. The treaty is the legal foundation usually meant by the phrase “US-Japan alliance.”
How Article 9 shapes the US-Japan alliance
Article 9 did not prevent later changes in how Japan interpreted its security role. In July 2014, the cabinet of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe reinterpreted the provision to permit limited collective self-defense: coming to the aid of an ally, including the United States, under strict conditions.
The Legislation for Peace and Security package passed in September 2015 and took effect in March 2016. It authorized Japan’s Self-Defense Forces to assist allies in an “existential crisis situation.” Separately, the revised 2015 U.S.-Japan Defense Cooperation Guidelines removed geographical restrictions on Self-Defense Forces operations, allowing global cooperation with U.S. forces.
Coordination reaches foreign and defense ministers
The Security Consultative Committee, often called the “2+2,” brings together the two countries’ foreign and defense ministers. It is the highest-level bilateral forum for alliance coordination and force realignment. Japan also works with the United States, Australia, and India in the Quad on maritime security and Indo-Pacific stability.
US-Japan trade and the people-to-people infrastructure
The U.S.-Japan Trade Agreement was signed on October 7, 2019, and took effect on January 1, 2020. Japan eliminated or reduced tariffs on about 600 tariff lines for U.S. agricultural products, while the United States did the same for 241 tariff lines, mostly Japanese industrial goods.
Japan’s Embassy in Washington also houses the Japan Information & Culture Center, which promotes cultural and educational exchanges. These activities sit alongside consular work for travelers, students, businesses, and Japanese nationals in the United States.
Where citizens should seek current consular information
The Embassy of Japan in the United States is at 2520 Massachusetts Avenue NW in Washington, DC. Its consular services are limited to residents of Washington, DC, Maryland, and Virginia. Applicants elsewhere should contact the Japanese consulate general or consular office that serves their jurisdiction.
Japan maintains 14 consulates general across the United States, plus consular offices in Anchorage, Portland, and Saipan. They provide visa processing, passport services, notarization, and support for Japanese nationals. The United States Embassy in Japan is located at 1-10-5 Akasaka, Minato, Tokyo, and the United States maintains consular posts in Naha, Osaka-Kobe, Sapporo, Fukuoka, and Nagoya.
Visa rules, entry requirements, fees, and procedures can change. Before travel or an application, consult the relevant official Embassy of Japan, Japanese consulate, U.S. Embassy, or Ministry of Foreign Affairs source for the rules that apply to your location and purpose of travel.
Frequently Asked Questions
When did the US-Japan alliance officially begin?
The present alliance framework began with the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, signed on January 19, 1960, and in force from June 23, 1960. It replaced the 1951 Security Treaty.
What did Commodore Perry’s treaty actually open?
The Treaty of Kanagawa, signed March 31, 1854, opened Shimoda and Hakodate for supplies and shipwreck rescue. General trade came later through the Harris Treaty of 1858.
What is Japanese Constitution Article 9?
Article 9 renounces war as a sovereign right and says that land, sea, and air forces and other war potential will never be maintained. Its 2014 reinterpretation permitted collective self-defense in specified circumstances.
Which Japanese mission should a U.S. resident contact?
The Embassy of Japan in Washington serves only Washington, DC, Maryland, and Virginia. Residents of other states should use the Japanese consulate general or consular office responsible for their jurisdiction and verify current procedures through an official source.
